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Handbook
Handbook introduction
Topic list
Core literature
Examples of thesis
Calendar
Learning outcomes
Stylesheet
Guidelines
Style Sheet
List of contents
1.0 Format
1.2. Content
2.0 Mechanics
2.1 Spelling
2.2 Punctuation
2.3 Numbers
2.4 Italics (or underlining)
2.5 Quotations
2.6 Abbreviation
2.7 Capitalization
3.0 Documentation
3.1 List of References
3.2 In-text References
3.3 Footnotes or Endnotes
3.4 Abbreviations used in notes
Plagiarism
This style sheet describes the house style used in the ESST Program. It lists all the relevant rules with regard to the format, mechanics, and documentation of the writing that students do as part of their coursework. A style sheet is meant to ensure the formal consistency of the writing produced in a given context or community. As such, it has a purely pragmatic function: it is more convenient to process and evaluate papers that all rely on the same principles of, for example, spelling, punctuation, and acknowledging sources. Working with a style sheet also contributes to improving the consistency of the formal features of a single text. Furthermore, it familiarizes student writers with a fixed set of rules and conventions that experienced writers who are active in the same discourse or academic discipline rely on. Finally, the uniformity that results from working with a style sheet reduces the chance of misunderstandings and miscommunications. It is perfectly acceptable, for instance, to use abbreviations in footnotes, but agreement on which abbreviations ought to be used or when to use them can only raise the transparency of a footnote’s meaning. For these various reasons students are required to use the faculty’s house style in all writing they do as part of their coursework. This style sheet is divided into three sections: format, mechanics, and documentation.
1.1. All writing that is turned in must be typed and carefully proofread (for spelling and other errors) and meet the following formal standards:
- paper size and color: use A4 and white paper only
- line spacing: 2 throughout (except quotations and footnotes or endnotes)
- lettering: 12-point (except footnotes or endnotes)
- margins: leave 1 inch at the top and bottom and on both sides of the main text
- hyphenation: turn off your word processor’s automatic hyphenation feature
- justification: do not justify the lines of your paper at the right margin
- indention: indent each paragraph one-half inch (or five spaces) from the left margin, except the first paragraph or after a blank line; indent set-off quotations one inch (or ten spaces) from the left margin.
- page numbers: use Arabic numerals for numbering all pages consecutively, except the title page (and, if applicable, the contents page and the page with list of illustrations). Put the page number in the upper right-hand corner. If your paper has a preface of more than one page, use Roman numerals for the page numbers of the preface.
Typically, a short paper consists of a title page and the main text, but a longer research paper like a thesis, also consists of a table of contents and a list of references, and, if applicable, a foreword (preface) and a list of illustrations. These various components should be arranged in the following order:
- title page. Always use a title page. Type the title horizontally centered, approximately 2 inches from the top. Use capitals for the first and last word and all other main words. You may use bold typeface, but no underlining or italics (the latter should only be used in the title if it contains a foreign word). If there is also a subtitle, use a colon to separate title and subtitle. Do not add a footnote reference to your title.
In the lower right-hand corner of the ‘second’ title page you list the following items: your name and emailaddress; first and second semester university; name of the specialisation; name of the supervisor(s); wordcount.
- preface. The preface contains relevant introductory remarks and/or acknowledgments. In most cases a preface is redundant, while a long preface may seem pretentious; however, if you need more than one page, use small Roman numerals for page numbering.
- contents. Use a separate page for listing the “Contents”. This page is not numbered. It contains a listing of all parts of the text, except the title page and the contents page; (b) the title of each chapter and/or other formal part of the main text; (c) the number of the first page of each part and/or chapter.
- illustrations. If illustrations are used they should be listed on a separate page, called “Illustrations”. This page is not numbered and follows the “Contents” page. It contains the following information: (a) the number of each illustration, (b) the caption (summarized), and (c) the number of the page on which the illustration is found. The caption contains the following information: (1) name artist, (2) title, (3) year, (4) description and commentary (if applicable), and (5) source.
- main text. The main text consists of an introduction, body, and conclusion. Be sure to use well-organized paragraphs and generally avoid very brief or very long paragraphs. Especially in longer essays a set of interrelated paragraphs should be presented as a chapter or a (sub)section thereof; in short essays (sub)sectioning should be avoided. Chapters and sections have numbers and/or headings. Each chapter begins on a separate page, but sections or subsections do not have to be numbered and they do not need to begin on a new page. If it seems useful to number sections and subsections, use Arabic numerals (example: 1.1 refers to the first section of Chapter 1; 1.1.2 refers the second subsection of section 1 of Chapter 1). If the section or chapter has a heading, the number is first followed by a space and then the title, of which the first and last word and all other main words are capitalized. Separate heading from subsequent text by a line spacing of 1.5. Separate text from subsequent title or heading by a line spacing of two times 1.5.
- references. At the end a listing of all the sources used, called “References,” is added. If it seems relevant to classify primary and secondary sources, consult your instructor. The list consists of complete bibliographic entries of all sources used in both the main text and the footnotes or endnotes. The list should be arranged alphabetically, starting with the author’s last name. The entries listed all follow the APA style (see below).
The spelling used in your research paper should be consistent throughout, except in quotations, which must retain the spelling of the original. Of course, there are different ways of spelling English correctly. The most widely practiced in the world is US spelling, but in Europe UK spelling is perhaps more prominent. The differences between these systems are minor, though, while over the years the various systems tend to become more alike. Moreover, even within a single spelling system a word may have variant spellings. What is most relevant, then, is that your spelling be consistent. Rely on a good dictionary (Oxford for UK English, Webster’s Collegiate for US English), and always use a spelling checker.
The main role of punctuation is to ensure the clarity and readability of writing. Punctuation marks clarify the sentence structure and can also affect the tone or meaning of a sentence. Their improper usage may cause misunderstandings and suggests a lack of control or sophistication on the writer’s part. As a rule, you must use punctuation in a consistent manner. The usage of periods, question marks, and exclamation points is obvious in most cases. A period indicates the end of a sentence and is also used in abbreviations. A question mark is indicative of a question the writer articulates, but an indirect question must be ended with a period rather than a question mark. An exclamation point follows a word group or sentence that expresses exceptional feeling or deserves special emphasis; it is, in fact, rarely used in research papers. By contrast, commas are a crucial element in academic writing, while other punctuation marks – semicolons, colons, apostrophes, quotation marks, dashes, parentheses, brackets, ellipsis marks, and hyphens – are important as well.
2.2.1 Commas. The comma is a major tool for helping readers. Not using commas, or misplacing them, can complicate their understanding of an entire sentence.
2.2.2 Semicolons. The semicolon is used to separate major sentence elements of equal grammatical rank. Use a semicolon
- between closely related independent clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction like and, but, or, for, nor, so, yet. (example: The EU is an ambiguous political institution; it lacks democratically elected leadership.)
- when independent clauses have been joined with a conjunctive adverb (e.g. however, nevertheless, therefore, moreover) or a transitional expression such as for example or in fact (example: I have read many studies about the EU democratic deficit; however, I never understood why it is such an important issue.). To use merely a comma in these instances creates an error known as comma splice.
- between items in a series containing internal punctuation (example: Present at the conference were Sandra Johnson, a European Convention member; Peter Barrett, a professor of European Studies; and Lucia Pavese, a European Council member.)
2.2.3 Colons. The colon is primarily used to call attention to the words that follow it. It must be preceded by a full independent clause. Use a colon
- after an independent clause to direct attention to a list (example: The first European Union consisted of six countries: France, Belgium, Italy, Germany, Luxemburg, and the Netherlands.)
- after an independent clause to direct attention to an appositive (a noun or noun phrase that renames a nearby noun) (example: Two of the original member states vetoed the new directive: Belgium and Luxemburg.)
- after an independent clause to direct attention to a quotation (example: In a recent interview the party leader said: “We favor a more active government.”)
- between independent clauses if the second summarizes or explains the first (example: This we are forced to conclude: The EU must be expanded.)
2.2.4 Apostrophes. Use an apostrophe
- to indicate that a noun is possessive (example: Only a minority of the European Parliament was present at today’s meeting). If the noun is singular and ends in –s, add ’s, but if the noun is plural and ends in –s, add only an apostrophe (example: Most members’ feelings on this issue are predictable.)
- to indicate joint possession (example: What is France and Belgium’s view on this issue?) or individual possession (example: Germany’s and Belgium’s views on this issue could not have been more different.) In the first example the assumption is that the two countries hold the same view.
- to pluralize numbers, words mentioned as words, and abbreviations (example: You must ask to see their student I.D.’s. Or: We have heard enough maybe’s from the Commission).
- it is common to use references to specific decades without apostrophe (cf. the 1960s, the 1850s)
2.2.5 Quotation Marks. Use quotation marks
- to enclose direct quotations that are integrated in the text. (example: In a recent interview the party leader said that he favored “a more active government.”)
- around titles of articles, poems, short stories, songs, television and radio programs, and chapters or subdivisions of books.
- to set off words as words (italics is also allowed here) (example: The meaning of “integration” is obvious.)
- use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within a quotation. (example: The chairman told us that “the party leadership told him ‘to step down’ and that indeed he planned to do so.”
- do not use quotation marks for indirect quotations or to express irony or detachment.
- periods and commas must be placed inside quotation marks; colons and semicolons must be placed outside quotation marks; and question marks and exclamation points must be put inside quotation marks unless they apply to the sentence as a whole.
2.2.6 Dashes. Dashes should be used sparingly. Their application may contribute to a sentence’s clarity or a more varied sentence structure, but in many cases commas do just as well. Use a pair of dashes
- to set off parenthetical material that deserves emphasis (example: Everything that went wrong – from the policy’s initial design to its implementation – was blamed on the lack of cooperation from local governments.)
- to set off an appositive that contains commas (example: In Brussels the basic needs of people – food, clothing, and housing – are much more expensive than in some other European capitals.)
- use a single dash to introduce words that summarize a preceding series or to prepare for a list, a restatement, an amplification, or a dramatic shift in tone or thought (example: Young and committed, clever and pragmatic, ardent and humorous – the star of the European Parliament’s new representative from Poland is rising quickly. Or: The new commissioner from the Netherlands is polite, motivated, well-educated, internationally oriented – and a failure.)
2.2.7 Parentheses. Use parentheses
- to enclose supplemental material, a minor digression, or an afterthought (example: After the new policy’s outlining, planning, and drafting (all standard procedures), the vote was a mere formality.) Do not overuse parentheses for these purposes.
- to enclose letters or numbers labeling items in a series (example: She is (a) a good writer, (b) a skilled communicator, and (c) and excellent manager.)
- to refer to a source (see below).
2.2.8 Brackets. Use brackets only in direct quotations
- to enclose any words or phrases that you insert for the sake of the quotation’s clarity or to fit the quotation into your own text smoothly (example: He argued that “the goal [of integration] is to increase the security and political stability of Europe.”)
- the Latin word sic in brackets indicates that an error in a quoted sentence appears in the original source (example: He argued that the goal of integration is “to increase the security and poltical [sic] stability of Europe.”)
2.2.9 Ellipsis mark. The ellipsis mark consists of three spaced periods. Use it
- to indicate that you have deleted material from an otherwise word-for-word quotation. This can be useful in cases where you only need part of a quotation as evidence or illustration (example: He argued that “the goal of integration is to increase . . . the political stability of Europe.”)
- the ellipsis mark should normally not be used at the end or beginning of a quotation; nor should it be enclosed in parentheses.
2.2.10 Hyphen. Consult a dictionary on how to treat a compound word. It will tell you whether to treat a compound word as a hyphenated compound (water-repellent), one word (waterproof), or two words (water table). If the compound word is not in the dictionary treat it as two words.
- Use a hyphen to connect two or more words functioning together as an adjective before a noun (example: The new Agriculture Commissioner is not a well-known figure.)
- Hyphenate the written form of fractions and of compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine (example: Two-thirds of the Polish population voted in favor of their country’s accession to the EU.)
- Use the hyphen with the prefixes all-, ex-, self- and with the suffix -elect. (example: Mistrust of European politics is all-pervasive in some member states. Or: She is the first president-elect of the EU.)
- The hyphen is used in some words to avoid ambiguity or to separate awkward double letters (example: There is a strikingly anti-intellectual attitude in Brussels.)
- Spell out numbers of one or two words. Use figures for numbers that require more than two words to spell out (unless the numbers form the beginning of a sentence).
- The use of numbers is acceptable in dates, addresses, percentages, fractions, decimals, scores, statistics and other numerical results, exact amounts of money, divisions of books, pages, identification numbers, and in references to time.
- Use historical dates in a consistent manner. Some examples: 16 August 1993, September 1900, the 1980s, the thirties, from 1970 to 1975, 200 B.C., A.D. 500. Spell out references to centuries or parts thereof. Examples: the eighteenth century, the mid-nineteenth century, a late-nineteenth-century development, in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, early-twenty-first-century EU politics.
- In consecutive page numbers used in references, numbers of three figures or more are abbreviated according to the logic implied in the following examples: pp. 21-28, pp. 87-167, pp. 345-46, pp. 200-10, pp. 330-460, pp. 1008-74, pp. 12345-47, pp. 12345-447.
2.4 Italics (or underlining). Use italics for
- the titles of books, journals, plays, films, long poems, works of visual art, newspapers, pamphlets, magazines, and musical compositions (example: The Abduction of Europa is a famous painting.)
- foreign words in English sentences (example: The German Bundeskanzler won the elections for the second time.)
- words, letters, and numbers mentioned as themselves (example: As a concept, integration is quite vague.) (Quotation marks are also allowed here)
- emphasis, but only sparingly (example: I really enjoy being in the European Studies Program.)
- Quotations must be copied accurately and correspond to the original in words, spelling, and internal punctuation. Each adjustment needs to be accounted for explicitly. Avoid dropping quotations into the text without warning; instead, provide clear signal phrases, usually including the author’s name, to prepare readers for the source. Use phrases like: according to Prodi, as Prodi has noted, Prodi points out that, as Prodi claims. The first word of a quotation that is a full sentence needs to be capitalized (even if this is not the case in the original).
- Quotations of one, two, or three lines must be incorporated into the main text between quotation marks. Quotations of four lines or more must be set off from the main text by a line spacing of 1.5 and indention (one inch or ten spaces from the left margin). Use a line spacing of 1.2. Because these features already mark the words as quoted, quotation marks are not necessary anymore.
- Two useful marks of punctuation, the ellipsis mark and brackets, allow you to keep quoted material to a minimum and to integrate it smoothly into your text (see above).
Abbreviations must be used sparingly in formal writing, but the following categories of abbreviations are common:
- titles immediately before and after proper names (like Mr., Mrs., Dr., Prof., Jr., M.D.)
- names of well-known organizations or countries, especially when used frequently in a particular context. Consider, for instance, EU, UN, USA, IBM, UNESCO, and CIA. Note that the letters of these abbreviations are not followed by periods.
- generally accepted abbreviations like A.D. (Latin anno Domini , “after Christ” precedes the date), B.C. (before Christ, follows the date), a.m., and p.m.
- Latin abbreviations like cf. (compare), e.g. (for example), etc. (and so forth), N.B. (note well), and i.e. (that is) are only used in comments in parentheses or in notes (see below, under Documentation); in formal writing only use the appropriate English phrases.
The following words must be capitalized:
- the first word of a sentence
- the first word of a quoted sentence unless it is blended into the sentence that introduces it (cf. In a recent issue of European Studies a German professor wrote, “The EU is on the verge of meeting entirely new cultural challenges.” And: In a recent issue of European Studies a German professor wrote that “the EU is on the verge of meeting entirely new cultural challenges.”)
- proper nouns and words derived from them. Months, days, and holidays are treated as proper nouns; the seasons and numbers of days of the month are not. (example: The next EU summit will take place in early spring, on the second of April.)
- titles of persons only when used as part of a proper name (example: I was asked a question by Prof. Johnson. And: I was asked a question by the professor.)
- the first, last, and all major words in titles and subtitles of works like books, articles, and movies when they are mentioned in the main text (cf. The End of the Opera, “Europe: A History of a Symbolic Quest”)
- abbreviations for departments, major policies, organizations, corporations, and so on (cf. EU, CAP, UN)
- do not capitalize the first word after a colon unless it begins an independent clause, in which case capitalization is optional (example: The European integration effort divides people into two groups: staunch believers and radical skeptics. And: This we are forced to conclude: The [or the] EU must be expanded.)
Research papers are always in part based on information borrowed from sources. This specific borrowed information must be carefully acknowledged (also see below, under “Plagiarism”). Traditionally, academic writers mainly relied on a set of footnotes or endnotes for acknowledging their sources. Today, most disciplines rely on the so-called “author-year” (or author-date) system. This system consists of a bibliography, a list comprising all sources that are used in a particular paper, and parenthetical in-text references to this particular list.
A research paper ends with a list of sources, called “Bibliography,” “Works Cited,” “References,” or some other similar designation. There are several common systems for putting together the entries on the list, the two major ones being the MLA style, mostly used in the humanities, and the APA style, widely used in many disciplines, including the social sciences. One convention of the APA style, on which we rely in this program, is to call the list of sources “References.” A basic entry has the following general structure:
Book:
Author’s or editor’s name, date of publication, book title, publication information.
Article:
Author’s name, date of publication, article title, journal title, publication information.
Specific examples can be found below under “APA guidelines”. Mark that your entries need to follow these guidelines exactly. (For formatting your bibliography you can also make use of the Endnote program.)
It is crucial that in-text references are clear, correct, and concise. In-text references generally consist of three elements at most: last name(s) of the author(s), year of publication, and page number(s). Moreover, a comma follows each of the elements. A characteristic in-text reference is structured as follows: (Delors, 1988, p. 16). A single in-text reference may contain references to multiple sources: (Delors, 1988, p. 16; Delors, 1990, p. 67; Dehaene, 1994, pp. 104-06). This information allows readers to identify the correct source(s) in the list of references at the end of the text. The complete bibliographic information of a source is only provided once: in the list of references, rather than in the main text or in footnotes or endnotes.
It is not necessary to acknowledge each and every piece of information in a text; well-known quotations or established scientific views, for instance, are considered common knowledge and do not need to be acknowledged. In all other cases sources must be acknowledged in an in-text reference, but this reference does not always need to include an author’s name, year, and page. For example,
- when you summarize or paraphrase someone’s overall argument, it is perfectly acceptable to refer to that source in general, without specifying a particular page.
- when you refer to a brief poem or to an alphabetically arranged source (like an encyclopedia), you do not need to indicate line numbers or page numbers.
- various consecutive citations from the same source have to be acknowledged only once, after the final citation from that source.
- if the next in-text reference refers to another page of the same source, only the page number needs to be given. When, for example, the in-text reference to (Delors, 1988, p. 14) is followed by the in-text reference to (p. 78), the reader knows that you refer to the same source. If the next reference is to (1982, p. 25), this means that the reference is to another source from the same author.
For more detailed information on in-text reference, see the APA Manual in the University Library or internet, or carefully check a recently published book or article that relies on the APA style.
In addition to a list of sources and in-text references, a research paper commonly contains a set of notes. A distinction can be made between explanatory notes and reference notes. Additional information or explanation regarding a particular issue is generally put in a note to avoid breaking up the flow of the main argument or to provide more background to an issue. Most research papers have a set of explanatory notes. However, reference notes have basically become redundant after the introduction of the author-year system of documentation. You only use a note to refer to a source if for some reason in-text reference would break up the flow of the main text too much, or in combination with explanatory information.
A second major distinction involves endnotes versus footnotes. The latter are generally used if the total number of notes is limited and they tend to be not very long. Endnotes are preferable if there are many notes and/or they tend to be extensive. In general it is best to be selective about using notes. It is not required to explain everything in detail.
Notes are numbered consecutively. Only use Arabic numerals, not followed by a period.
The in-text reference to the note is in superscript, always right after a punctuation mark – except in the case of a colon, semicolon, and dash – and right after a quotation (never after the author’s name or the colon that announces the quotation).
Most word processors have an automatic note system. Use a line spacing of 1 both in notes and between notes. Use an 11-point lettering.
3.4 Abbreviations used in notes
Notes have to be as concise as possible, which is why standard abbreviations are frequently used. There are a number of commonly used abbreviations in notes and documentation:
anon. anonymus
cf. Latin confer, “compare”
Ch. Chapter
Diss. Dissertation
Ed., Eds. Editor(s)
e.g. Latin exempli gratia, “for example”
etc. Latin et cetera, “and so forth,” “and so on”
et al. Latin et alii, “and others”
fig., figs. figure(s)
ibid. Latin ibidem, “in the same place,” i.e. the source of which the title is cited in the preceding note
i.e. Latin id est, “that is”
illus. illustration, illustrator, illustrated by
ms., mss. manuscript(s)
n., nn. note(s) (e.g., “p. 56, n. 2”)
n.d. no date of publication
n.p. no place of publication; no publisher
N.B. Latin nota bene, “note well”
No. (or no.) number
op. cit. Latin opere citato, “in the cited work”
p., pp. page(s)
rev. ed. revised edition
vol., vols volume(s)
UP University Press
References
American Psychological Association (1994). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (4th ed.). Washington DC: APA.
Examples of references to books:
Book, 1 author
Hall, J. A. (1986). States in history. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Book, 2 authors
Cole, J., & Cole, F. (1997). A geography of the European Union. London/New York: Routledge.
Edited book
Graham, B. (Ed.). (1998). Modern Europe. Place, culture, identity. London: Arnold.
Edited book, 2 editors
Wilson, K., & Dussen, J. van der (Eds.). (1993). The history of the idea of Europe. London : The Open University.
Article or chapter in an edited book
Nederveen Pieterse, J. (1994). Unpacking the West. How European is Europe? In A. Rattensi & S. Westwood (Eds.), Racism, modernity and identity on the western front (pp. 129-149). Cambridge: Cambridge University press.
English translation of a book
Luria, A. R. (1969). The mind of a mnemonist (L. Solotaroff, Trans.). New York: Avon Books. (Original work published 1965)
Examples of references to periodicals
Journal article, 1 author:
Moravscik, A. (1991). Negotiating the single European Act. National interests and conventional statecraft in the European Community. International Organization, 45, 651-688.
Journal article, 2 authors:
Sandholtz, W., & Zysman, W. J. (1992). Recasting the European bargain. World Politics, 41, 95-128.
Magazine article:
Kundera, M. (1984, April). The tragedy of central Europe. New York Review of Books, pp. 69-75.
Newspaper article:
Hofland, H. J. A. (1997, September 24). Som der subculturen. NRC Handelsblad, p. 7.
Electronic source
Wiesel, E. (1998). Ohne Schande. Die Zeit. [On-line]. Available: http://www3.zeit.de/bda/int/zeit/print/199851.wiesel_.html
Plagiarism
plagiarism: 1. an act or instance of plagiarizing 2. something plagiarized.
plagiarize: 1. to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as one’s own: use (a created production) without crediting the source 2. to commit literary theft: present as new and original an idea or product derived from an existing source.
Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary
The word “plagiarism” is derived from the Latin word “plagiarius”, which literally means “plunderer”. Just as plundering or looting the possessions of someone else is unlawful, plundering someone else’s words or ideas is illegal. Put simply, plagiarism is stealing the intellectual labor performed by others. In the academic community plagiarism is not only considered a vulgar form of theft, but also seen as an attack on fundamental academic values. By robbing others of their ideas and subsequently behaving as if one has generated them on one’s own, the confidence of fellow students, staff members, professors, and the academic system at large is seriously undermined. As a matter of principle, members of the academic community subscribe to a basic code of conduct when it comes to quoting the work of other scholars or referring to scholarly and other sources.
In order to avoid unintentional plagiarism it is important to know exactly what plagiarism is. After all, it entails more than just copying some other author’s work (or parts thereof) and putting your own name under it. Plagiarism is every form of use of ideas that are derived from an external source and that are not generally considered as common knowledge, without acknowledging their origin. When borrowing ideas, it makes no difference whether you literally copy someone else’s words or whether you put them into your own words. Paraphrasing, rearranging words or sentences, using the same sequence of ideas or line of reasoning, summarizing paragraphs, repeating specific formulations – these are all strategies for deriving ideas from others and incorporating them into your own text or argument.
Of course, we produce academic writing precisely because we want to share our views and findings with other individuals, who may very well be interested in actively using our knowledge in their own writing. It is even expected that we as academic writers make generous use of the work of others, for in many cases it will serve as excellent support for our own findings, especially if the sources we rely on are widely seen as authoritative. But this basic academic principle of striving to integrate our knowledge with that of others – as a crucial element of our common effort to contribute to a better and more advanced intellectual knowledge community – can only be effective if we always account for the source of specific information with as much care and detail as possible. After all, only then will we enable others to check information, to see whether sources are quoted correctly, or to find out if certain interpretations are justified or, in effect, contribute to a new understanding.
In order to avoid unintentional plagiarism, it is useful to keep in mind the following rule of thumb: If you have specific knowledge or opinions about a topic prior to reading a particular source on that topic and writing about it, you do not have to account for this source. When in doubt, always refer to your source.
The following example should clarify the difference between proper and improper use of ideas and phrases from other authors. Assume that you have read the following brief passage in a 1991 study by the Dutch author Andrée van Es, entitled Schengen, of de nieuwe deling van Europa (Schengen, or the new division of Europe; Amsterdam: Van Gennep)
Schengen is enlightened self-interest. It is an attempt to protect Europe against chaos and poverty. But the price is high. Schengen shifts the balance of power between government and citizens in favor of government. Those who believe that these regulations can stop migratory movements will have a rude awakening. After all, the basic challenge will be how to enforce these regulations. (p. 57)
This information might be used in various ways in an essay about the argument presented by Van Es. One possible version reads as follows:
In the wake of debates about the control of migratory movements and the ensuing sharpening of regulations, as formulated, for instance, in the Schengen agreement, the power balance between citizens and government has shifted too much in favor of the latter. People accepted this out of a sense of enlightened self-interest. But recent debates about asylum policies support our thesis that those who believe that Europe can be protected against the chaos and poverty that is found elsewhere in the world will have a rude awakening. A further shifting of the balance of power will be seen as inevitable to enforce the regulations.
This is an unambiguous case of plagiarism. Not only did the author borrow specific ideas from Van Es, but also did he use some of the exact same formulations; because there is no reference to the source, it appears as of the ideas are the author’s own views.
A second version reads as follows:
In the wake of debates about the control of migratory movements and the ensuing sharpening of regulations, as formulated, for instance, in the Schengen agreement, the power balance between citizens and government has shifted too much in favor of the latter. People accepted this out of a sense of enlightened self-interest. But recent debates about ayslum policies demonstrate that those who believe that Europe can be protected against the chaos and poverty that is found elsewhere in the world will have a rude awakening. A further shifting of the balance of power will be seen as inevitable to enforce the regulations.
This is plagiarism as well. The author uses a number of ideas and some literal phrases without making any reference to Andrée van Es or the book from which these ideas and phrases are borrowed. Thus the author pretends as if these ideas are more less facts that are unchallenged by anyone and that thus count as general knowledge, while in reality, they are the individual views of Van Es.
A more acceptable way of using this particular source is the following:
In the fall of 1998, the parliamentary commission in charge fiercely debated the issue of additional regulations to “dam”, as it is called, the “growing influx” of asylum seekers. These debates confirmed the views of Andrée van Es, who, in response to the decision process about Schengen, already warned for citizens’ blind trust in the potential of new regulations and strong government to curb the migratory influx. “Schengen is about enlightened self-interest,” she writes. “It is an attempt to protect Europe against chaos and poverty. But the price is high.” (Van Es, 1991, p. 57) After all, as van Es argues, in order to enforce the new regulations a constant shifting of the balance of power between government and citizens in favor of the former will turn out to be inevitable.
In this last version the author accounts for the ideas and formulations presented through a direct reference to their source. In order to support his own view, the author relies on Van Es as an authority and by making a very specific source reference he allows the reader to trace whether this interpretation of van Es’s views is correct and whether her words are quoted correctly.
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